Methods of treating diseases which are mediated by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive cells

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to methods of treating patients suffering from itching and puritis mediated by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cell. In particular, diseases or disorders including contact dermatitis, drug induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions, toxic epidermal necrolysis, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, bullous pemphigoid, alopecia aereata, vitiligo, acne rosacea, prurigo nodularis, and herpes simplex virus, or combination thereof will benefit from the administration of an IL-31 antagonist. The invention also includes methods of predicting a therapeutically responsive patient population.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/497,383, filed Jul. 2, 2009, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/353,427, filed Feb. 14, 2006, now abandoned, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/653,114, filed Feb. 14, 2005, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/716,762, filed Sep. 13, 2005, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/749,952, filed Dec. 13, 2005, all of which are herein incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The skin plays an important role in the immune system and consists of layers. Circulating T lymphocytes migrate to the skin under normal and inflammatory conditions. The cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA) is considered a horning receptor for T cells with tropism for the skin. Santamaria-Babi, L., Eur. J. Dermatol. 14:13-18, 2004. CLA is a carbohydrate structure which is expressed on memory T cells as an epitope of the single cell-surface protein named P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) and facilitates binding of T cells to E-selectin, an inducible adhesion molecule expressed on vascular endothelium. See Fuhlbrigge R C, et al., Nature 1997; 389:978-81.

Several diseases of the skin are known to express high levels of CLA+ T cells, including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, drug-induced allergic reactions, skin-tropic viruses and viral associated pruritis, vitiligo, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, alopecia aereata, acne rosacea, acne vulgaris, prurigo nodularis, and bullous pemphigoid. There is a need to treat such skin T cell mediated diseases.

The demonstrated in vivo activities of cytokines illustrate the enormous clinical potential of, and need for, other cytokines, cytokine agonists, and cytokine antagonists. The present invention addresses these needs by providing a method of treating such diseases by interfering with the actions of IL-31, a newly identified cytokine. IL-31, when over-expressed in mice, results in itching and dermatitis-like symptoms. Both skin-homing T cells and epidermal keratinocytes have been implicated in the pathology of skin diseases in humans.

The present invention provides such polypeptides for these and other uses that should be apparent to those skilled in the art from the teachings herein.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Within one aspect, the invention provides a method of treating diseased skin comprising administering an antagonist molecule to a mammal with the diseased skin wherein the diseased skin is characterized by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cells and the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO: 4, and whereby administration of the antagonist molecule improves, prevents, inhibits or reduces the diseased skin. Within an embodiment, the patient has a skin disorder selected from Contact dermatitis, Drug induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions, Toxic epidermal necrolysis, Cutaneous T cell Lymphoma, Bullous pemphigoid, Alopecia aereata, Vitiligo, Acne Rosacea, Prurigo nodularis, and Herpes simplex virus. Within a further embodiment, the mammal is a human. Within another embodiment, the antagonist is an antibody or antibody fragment. Within a further embodiment the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2. Within another embodiment, the diseased skin is pruritic.

Within another aspect, the invention provides a method for treating pruritis comprising administering an antagonist molecule to a mammal with the pruritis wherein the pruritis is characterized by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cells and wherein the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide having the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2 or in SEQ ID NO: 4, and whereby administration of the antagonist molecule improves, prevents, inhibits or reduces the pruritis. Within an embodiment, the pruritis is associated with a skin disorder selected from Contact dermatitis, Drug induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions, Toxic epidermal necrolysis, Cutaneous T cell Lymphoma, Bullous pemphigoid, Alopecia aereata, Vitiligo, Acne Rosacea, Prurigo nodularis, and Herpes simplex virus. Within an further embodiment, the mammal is a human. Within a further embodiment, the antagonist is an antibody or antibody fragment. Within a further embodiment, the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2.

Within another aspect, the invention provides a method for predicting therapeutic response to an IL-31 antagonist in an individual in need of IL-31 antagonist therapy comprising obtaining a biological sample from the patient, isolating circulating cutaneous lymphocyte positive T cells from the biological sample, and detecting IL-31 production from the isolated cutaneous lymphocyte positive T cells. Within an embodiment, the IL-31 is detected by specifically binding to an IL-31 antagonist. Within a further embodiment, the IL-31 antagonist is an anti-IL-31 antibody or antibody fragment. Within another embodiment, the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2. Within another embodiment, the individual in need of IL-31 antagonist therapy has a skin disorder selected from Contact dermatitis, Drug induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions, Toxic epidermal necrolysis, Cutaneous T cell Lymphoma, Bullous pemphigoid, Alopecia aereata, Vitiligo, Acne Rosacea, Prurigo nodularis, and Herpes simplex virus. Within another embodiment, the method comprises the additional step of stimulating or activating the cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cells. Within a further embodiment, the IL-31 is detected by specifically binding to an IL-31 antagonist. Within another embodiment, the IL-31 antagonist molecule is an anti-M-31 antibody or antibody fragment. Within a further embodiment, the antagonist molecule specifically binds to the polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Prior to setting forth the invention in detail, it may be helpful to the understanding thereof to define the following terms:

The term “affinity tag” is used herein to denote a polypeptide segment that can be attached to a second polypeptide to provide for purification or detection of the second polypeptide or provide sites for attachment of the second polypeptide to a substrate. In principal, any peptide or protein for which an antibody or other specific binding agent is available can be used as an affinity tag. Affinity tags include a poly-histidine tract, protein A (Nilsson et al., EMBO J. 4:1075, 1985; Nilsson et al., Methods Enzymol. 198:3, 1991), glutathione S transferase (Smith and Johnson, Gene 67:31, 1988), Glu-Glu affinity tag (Grussenmeyer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:7952-4, 1985), substance P, Flag™ peptide (Hopp et al., Biotechnology 6:1204-10, 1988), streptavidin binding peptide, or other antigenic epitope or binding domain. See, in general, Ford et al., Protein Expression and Purification 2: 95-107, 1991. DNAs encoding affinity tags are available from commercial suppliers (e.g., Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, N.J.).

The term “allelic variant” is used herein to denote any of two or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same chromosomal locus. Allelic variation arises naturally through mutation, and may result in phenotypic polymorphism within populations. Gene mutations can be silent (no change in the encoded polypeptide) or may encode polypeptides having altered amino acid sequence. The term allelic variant is also used herein to denote a protein encoded by an allelic variant of a gene.

The terms “amino-terminal” and “carboxyl-terminal” are used herein to denote positions within polypeptides. Where the context allows, these terms are used with reference to a particular sequence or portion of a polypeptide to denote proximity or relative position. For example, a certain sequence positioned carboxyl-terminal to a reference sequence within a polypeptide is located proximal to the carboxyl terminus of the reference sequence, but is not necessarily at the carboxyl terminus of the complete polypeptide.

The term “complement/anti-complement pair” denotes non-identical moieties that form a non-covalently associated, stable pair under appropriate conditions. For instance, biotin and avidin (or streptavidin) are prototypical members of a complement/anti-complement pair. Other exemplary complement/anti-complement pairs include receptor/ligand pairs, antibody/antigen (or hapten or epitope) pairs, sense/antisense polynucleotide pairs, and the like. Where subsequent dissociation of the complement/anti-complement pair is desirable, the complement/anti-complement pair preferably has a binding affinity of <10⁹ M⁻¹.

The term “complements of a polynucleotide molecule” denotes a polynucleotide molecule having a complementary base sequence and reverse orientation as compared to a reference sequence. For example, the sequence 5′ ATGCACGGG 3′ is complementary to 5′ CCCGTGCAT 3′.

The term “contig” denotes a polynucleotide that has a contiguous stretch of identical or complementary sequence to another polynucleotide. Contiguous sequences are said to “overlap” a given stretch of polynucleotide sequence either in their entirety or along a partial stretch of the polynucleotide.

The term “degenerate nucleotide sequence” denotes a sequence of nucleotides that includes one or more degenerate codons (as compared to a reference polynucleotide molecule that encodes a polypeptide). Degenerate codons contain different triplets of nucleotides, but encode the same amino acid residue (i.e., GAU and GAC triplets each encode Asp).

The term “expression vector” is used to denote a DNA molecule, linear or circular, that comprises a segment encoding a polypeptide of interest operably linked to additional segments that provide for its transcription. Such additional segments include promoter and terminator sequences, and may also include one or more origins of replication, one or more selectable markers, an enhancer, a polyadenylation signal, etc. Expression vectors are generally derived from plasmid or viral DNA, or may contain elements of both.

The term “isolated”, when applied to a polynucleotide, denotes that the polynucleotide has been removed from its natural genetic milieu and is thus free of other extraneous or unwanted coding sequences, and is in a form suitable for use within genetically engineered protein production systems. Such isolated molecules are those that are separated from their natural environment and include cDNA and genomic clones. Isolated DNA molecules of the present invention are free of other genes with which they are ordinarily associated, but may include naturally occurring 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions such as promoters and terminators. The identification of associated regions will be evident to one of ordinary skill in the art (see for example, Dynan and Tijan, Nature 316:774-78, 1985).

An “isolated” polypeptide or protein is a polypeptide or protein that is found in a condition other than its native environment, such as apart from blood and animal tissue. In a preferred form, the isolated polypeptide is substantially free of other polypeptides, particularly other polypeptides of animal origin. It is preferred to provide the polypeptides in a highly purified form, i.e., greater than 95% pure, more preferably greater than 99% pure. When used in this context, the term “isolated” does not exclude the presence of the same polypeptide in alternative physical forms, such as dimers or alternatively glycosylated or derivatized forms.

The term “neoplastic”, when referring to cells, indicates cells undergoing new and abnormal proliferation, particularly in a tissue where in the proliferation is uncontrolled and progressive, resulting in a neoplasm. The neoplastic cells can be either malignant, i.e., invasive and metastatic, or benign.

The term “operably linked”, when referring to DNA segments, indicates that the segments are arranged so that they function in concert for their intended purposes, e.g., transcription initiates in the promoter and proceeds through the coding segment to the terminator.

The term “ortholog” denotes a polypeptide or protein obtained from one species that is the functional counterpart of a polypeptide or protein from a different species. Sequence differences among orthologs are the result of speciation.

“Paralogs” are distinct but structurally related proteins made by an organism. Paralogs are believed to arise through gene duplication. For example, α-globin, β-globin, and myoglobin are paralogs of each other.

A “polynucleotide” is a single- or double-stranded polymer of deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide bases read from the 5′ to the 3′ end. Polynucleotides include RNA and DNA, and may be isolated from natural sources, synthesized in vitro, or prepared from a combination of natural and synthetic molecules. Sizes of polynucleotides are expressed as base pairs (abbreviated “bp”), nucleotides (“nt”), or kilobases (“kb”). Where the context allows, the latter two terms may describe polynucleotides that are single-stranded or double-stranded. When the term is applied to double-stranded molecules it is used to denote overall length and will be understood to be equivalent to the term “base pairs”. It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that the two strands of a double-stranded polynucleotide may differ slightly in length and that the ends thereof may be staggered as a result of enzymatic cleavage; thus all nucleotides within a double-stranded polynucleotide molecule may not be paired.

A “polypeptide” is a polymer of amino acid residues joined by peptide bonds, whether produced naturally or synthetically. Polypeptides of less than about 10 amino acid residues are commonly referred to as “peptides”.

The term “promoter” is used herein for its art-recognized meaning to denote a portion of a gene containing DNA sequences that provide for the binding of RNA polymerase and initiation of transcription. Promoter sequences are commonly, but not always, found in the 5′ non-coding regions of genes.

A “protein” is a macromolecule comprising one or more polypeptide chains. A protein may also comprise non-peptidic components, such as carbohydrate groups. Carbohydrates and other non-peptidic substituents may be added to a protein by the cell in which the protein is produced, and will vary with the type of cell. Proteins are defined herein in terms of their amino acid backbone structures; substituents such as carbohydrate groups are generally not specified, but may be present nonetheless.

The term “receptor” denotes a cell-associated protein that binds to a bioactive molecule (i.e., a ligand) and mediates the effect of the ligand on the cell. Membrane-bound receptors are characterized by a multi-peptide structure comprising an extracellular ligand-binding domain and an intracellular effector domain that is typically involved in signal transduction. Binding of ligand to receptor results in a conformational change in the receptor that causes an interaction between the effector domain and other molecule(s) in the cell. This interaction in turn leads to an alteration in the metabolism of the cell. Metabolic events that are linked to receptor-ligand interactions include gene transcription, phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, increases in cyclic AMP production, mobilization of cellular calcium, mobilization of membrane lipids, cell adhesion, hydrolysis of inositol lipids and hydrolysis of phospholipids. In general, receptors can be membrane bound, cytosolic or nuclear; monomeric (e.g., thyroid stimulating hormone receptor, beta-adrenergic receptor) or multimeric (e.g., PDGF receptor, growth hormone receptor, IL-3 receptor, GM-CSF receptor, G-CSF receptor, erythropoietin receptor and IL-6 receptor).

The term “secretory signal sequence” denotes a DNA sequence that encodes a polypeptide (a “secretory peptide”) that, as a component of a larger polypeptide, directs the larger polypeptide through a secretory pathway of a cell in which it is synthesized. The larger polypeptide is commonly cleaved to remove the secretory peptide during transit through the secretory pathway.

The term “splice variant” is used herein to denote alternative forms of RNA transcribed from a gene. Splice variation arises naturally through use of alternative splicing sites within a transcribed RNA molecule, or less commonly between separately transcribed RNA molecules, and may result in several mRNAs transcribed from the same gene. Splice variants may encode polypeptides having altered amino acid sequence. The term splice variant is also used herein to denote a protein encoded by a splice variant of an mRNA transcribed from a gene.

Molecular weights and lengths of polymers determined by imprecise analytical methods (e.g., gel electrophoresis) will be understood to be approximate values. When such a value is expressed as “about” X or “approximately” X, the stated value of X will be understood to be accurate to ±10%.

All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

The present invention provides novel methods of using IL-31 polynucleotides, polypeptides, and antagonists in detection, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, in particular, diseases that are mediated by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA) positive T cells. The present invention is based in part upon the discovery that a previously identified cytokine, IL-31 is expressed by skin-homing T cells, but not gut-homing T cells.

IL-31 is a recently discovered protein having the structure of a four-helical-bundle cytokine. This cytokine was previously identified as IL-31 and is fully described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/352,554, filed Jan. 21, 2003. See published U.S. Patent Application No. 2003-0224487, and PCT application WO 03/060090, all herein incorporated by reference. See also, Dillon, et al., Nature Immunol. 5:752-760, 2004. IL-31 is a ligand with high specificity for the receptor IL-31RA and at least one additional subunit comprising OncostatinM receptor beta (OSMRbeta). The native polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for human IL-31 are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 2, respectively. The native polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for mouse IL-31 are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 3 and 4, respectively. The native polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for human IL-31 RA are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6, respectively. The native polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for mouse IL-31RA are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, respectively. The native polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for human OSMRbeta are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, respectively.

The secretory signal sequence of IL-31 is comprised of amino acid residues 1 (Met) to 23 (Ala), and the mature polypeptide is comprised of amino acid residues 24 (Ser) to 164 (Thr) as shown in SEQ ID NO:2. Further N-terminal sequencing analysis of purified IL-31 from 293T cells showed an N-terminus at residue 27 (Leu) as shown in SEQ ID NO:2, with the mature polypeptide comprised of amino acid residues 27 (Leu) to 164 (Thr) as shown in SEQ ID NO:2.

As used herein the term, IL-31 means Zcytor17lig, and IL-31RA means Zcytor17, as used in U.S. patent publication number 20030224487 (herein incorporated by reference), as shown above. The heterodimeric receptor for IL-31 was also described in 2003-0096339 (also incorporated herein by reference) as zcytor17 (HUGO name, IL-31RA) which form a heterodimer with at least one additional subunit comprising OncostatinM receptor beta (OSMRbeta).

Both skin-homing T cells and epidermal keratinocytes have been implicated in the pathology of skin diseases in humans. As shown herein, IL-31 mRNA and protein expression is restricted to the skin-homing CLA+ T cell population in both atopic dermatitis (AD) patients and normal individuals, while analysis of the receptor for IL-31, IL-31RA, by immunohistochemistry (IHC) suggests slightly higher levels of IL-31RA expression on skin keratinocytes in skin biopsies from AD sufferers compared to normal individuals.

When over-expressed in mice, IL-31 results in pruritus and the development of skin dermatitis resembling human atopic dermatitis (AD) Immunohistochemistry (IHC) studies shown herein show that IL-31RA protein was expressed by skin keratinocytes and infiltrating macrophages in skin biopsies from AD patients. Comparisons between AD patients and normal individuals suggested that IL-31RA was expressed at higher levels on epidermal keratinocytes in the AD samples. Skin cell infiltrates, which were present at greater numbers in skin of AD patients compared to normal individuals, expressed IL-31 mRNA. Histomorphometric analysis of these cells suggested a lymphocytic lineage with the majority of cells staining positive for cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA) and CD3, demonstrating that skin-homing T cells in skin express IL-31 mRNA. Upon analysis of peripheral blood T cells for IL-31, IL-31 mRNA and protein expression is largely restricted to CD45RO+ CLA+ skin-homing T cells in AD and normal volunteers. Moreover, circulating CLA+ T cells from AD patients are capable of producing higher levels of IL-31 compared to CLA+ T cells from normal individuals, though there is large variability between patient samples. These results provide strong evidence that IL-31 expression may contribute to the development of AD skin inflammation and pruritus.

As shown herein, IL-31 is produced both locally in the skin and by skin infiltrating cells. Local production of cytokines in tissues by T cells is thought to be a key mechanism for disease pathogenesis in AD and increased numbers of T cells both in circulation and in skin is thought to correlate with disease.

Although both AD patients and normal controls have circulating CLA+ T cells that express IL-31 upon activation, CLA+ T cells from AD patients are reported to exist in a more activated state compared to cells from normal individuals. See Akdis M, J Immunol 159:4611-4619, 1997. Consequently, the threshold of stimulation required for the production of IL-31 by CLA+ T cells may differ between dermatitis patients and control subjects. As shown herein, circulating CLA+T cells from AD patients after 24 hours of stimulation with sub-optimal concentrations of anti-CD3 in the absence of anti-CD28 have the capacity to produce higher levels of IL-31 compared to cells from normal individuals. Due to the variability in IL-31 levels produced by CLA+ T cells from individual AD patients, there was no significant difference in the average IL-31 production from circulating CLA+ T cells of AD and normal individuals. Nevertheless, since more CLA+ T cells are localized in skin of AD patients, as compared to normal individuals, there is an increased potential for IL-31 activity in the AD skin micro-environment.

Example 8 demonstrates that circulating CLA+ T cells from some AD patients produce higher levels of IL-31 compared to cells from normal individuals. The detection of IL-31 in patients of such a subpopulation using the bioassay provided herein, or with any assay that detects IL-31 produced by circulating T cells in the blood, may be useful to determine if an IL-31 antagonist will be useful as treatment for diseases wherein the presence of IL-31 causes inflammation.

A cell line that is dependent on the OSMRbeta and IL-31RA linked pathway for survival and growth in the absence of other growth factors can be used to measure the activity of IL-31. Such growth factor-dependent cell lines include BaF3, FDC-P1, and MO7e. For information on the BaF3 cell line, see Palacios and Steinmetz, (Cell 41: 727-734, 1985) and Mathey-Prevot et al., (Mol. Cell. Biol. 6: 4133-4135, 1986). For information on the FDC-P1 cell line, see Hapel et al. (Blood 64: 786-790, 1984). For information on the MO7e cell line, see Kiss et al., (Leukemia 7: 235-240, 1993).

The amino acid sequence for the OSMR, and IL-31RA receptors indicated that the encoded receptors belonged to the Class I cytokine receptor subfamily that includes, but is not limited to, the receptors for IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, Lif, IL-15, EPO, TPO, GM-CSF and G-CSF (for a review see, Cosman, “The Hematopoietin Receptor Superfamily” in Cytokine 5(2): 95-106, 1993). The TL-31RA receptor is fully described in PCT Patent Application No. US01/20484 (WIPO publication No. WO 02/00721). Analysis of the tissue distribution of the mRNA of the IL-31RA receptor revealed expression in activated CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell subsets, CD14+ monocytes, and weaker expression in CD19+ B-cells. Moreover, the mRNA was present in both resting or activated monocytic cell lines THP-1 (ATCC No. TIB-202), U937 (ATCC No. CRL-1593.2) and HL60 (ATCC No. CCL-240).

IL-31 is considered a four-alpha helix structure. Referring to the human IL-31 amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:2, the IL-31 helix A is defined by amino acid residues 38-52; helix B by amino acid residues 83-98; helix C by amino acid residues 104-117; and helix D by amino acid residues 137-152, and the conserved cysteine residues within IL-31 correspond to amino acid residues 72, 133, and 147 of SEQ ID NO:2; and 74, 137, and 151 of SEQ ID NO:8 described herein. Also highly conserved in the IL-31 is the Glu residue as shown in SEQ ID NO:2 at residue 43.

The polynucleotide sequence for the mouse ortholog of IL-31 has been identified and is shown in SEQ ID NO:3 and the corresponding amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:4. For the IL-31 mouse cytokine amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, helix A is defined by amino acid residues 38-52; helix B by amino acid residues 85-98; helix C by amino acid residues 104-118; and helix D by amino acid residues 141-157. Mature sequence for the mouse IL-31 putatively begins at Met₁, as shown in SEQ ID NO:4, which corresponds to Met₁, as shown in SEQ ID NO:2, in the human sequence. Tissue analysis revealed that expression of mouse IL-31 is found in testis, brain, CD90+ cells, prostate cells, salivary gland and skin. Further N-terminal sequencing analysis of purified IL-31 from 293T cells showed an N-terminus at residue 31 (Ala) as shown in SEQ ID NO:4 with the mature polypeptide comprising amino acid residues 31 (Ala) to 163 (Cys).

IL-31 is located at the 12q24.31 region of chromosome 12. Thus, the present invention also provides reagents which will find use in diagnostic applications. For example, the IL-31 gene, a probe comprising IL-31 DNA or RNA or a subsequence thereof, can be used to determine if the IL-31 gene is present on a human chromosome, such as chromosome 12, or if a gene mutation has occurred. Detectable chromosomal aberrations at the IL-31 gene locus include, but are not limited to, aneuploidy, gene copy number changes, loss of heterozygosity (LOH), translocations, insertions, deletions, restriction site changes and rearrangements. Such aberrations can be detected using polynucleotides of the present invention by employing molecular genetic techniques, such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, short tandem repeat (STR) analysis employing PCR techniques, and other genetic linkage analysis techniques known in the art (Sambrook et al., ibid.; Ausubel et. al., ibid.; Marian, Chest 108:255-65, 1995). Detection of chromosomal aberrations may be particularly important for diseases with a high correlation of cutaneous lymphocyte antigen. Thus, the present invention includes methods of detecting changes in the IL-31 gene, including up or down regulations thereof.

The proteins of the present invention (or polypeptide fragments thereof) can be joined to other bioactive molecules, particularly other cytokines, to provide multi-functional molecules. For example, one or more helices from IL-31 can be joined to other cytokines to enhance their biological properties or efficiency of production.

The present invention also provides the use of detecting polypeptide fragments or peptides comprising an epitope-bearing portion of a IL-31 polypeptide described herein in diseases mediated by CLA positive T cells. Such fragments or peptides may comprise an “immunogenic epitope,” which is a part of a protein that elicits an antibody response when the entire protein is used as an immunogen. Immunogenic epitope-bearing peptides can be identified using standard methods (see, for example, Geysen et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 81:3998 (1983)).

In contrast, polypeptide fragments or peptides may comprise an “antigenic epitope,” which is a region of a protein molecule to which an antibody can specifically bind. Certain epitopes consist of a linear or contiguous stretch of amino acids, and the antigenicity of such an epitope is not disrupted by denaturing agents. It is known in the art that relatively short synthetic peptides that can mimic epitopes of a protein can be used to stimulate the production of antibodies against the protein (see, for example, Sutcliffe et al., Science 219:660 (1983)). Accordingly, antigenic epitope-bearing peptides and polypeptides of the present invention are useful to raise antibodies (e.g., neutralizing antibodies) that bind with the polypeptides described herein. Hopp/Woods hydrophilicity profiles can be used to determine regions that have the most antigenic potential (Hopp et al., 1981, ibid. and Hopp, 1986, ibid). For example, in human IL-31, hydrophilic regions include amino acid residues 54-59 of SEQ ID NO:2, amino acid residues 129-134 of SEQ ID NO:2, amino acid residues 53-58 of SEQ ID NO:2, amino acid residues 35-40 of SEQ ID NO:2, and amino acid residues 33-38 of SEQ ID NO:2. For example, in mouse IL-31, hydrophilic regions include amino acid residues 34-39 of SEQ ID NO:4, amino acid residues 46-51 of SEQ ID NO:4, amino acid residues 131-136 of SEQ ID NO:4, amino acid residues 158-163 of SEQ ID NO:4, and amino acid residues 157-162 of SEQ ID NO:4.

Antigenic epitope-bearing peptides and polypeptides preferably contain at least four to ten amino acids, at least ten to fourteen amino acids, or about fourteen to about thirty amino acids of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:4. Such epitope-bearing peptides and polypeptides can be produced by fragmenting a TL-31 polypeptide, or by chemical peptide synthesis, as described herein. Moreover, epitopes can be selected by phage display of random peptide libraries (see, for example, Lane and Stephen, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:268 (1993); and Cortese et al., Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 7:616 (1996)). Standard methods for identifying epitopes and producing antibodies from small peptides that comprise an epitope are described, for example, by Mole, “Epitope Mapping,” in Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol. 10, Manson (ed.), pages 105-116 (The Humana Press, Inc. 1992); Price, “Production and Characterization of Synthetic Peptide-Derived Antibodies,” in Monoclonal Antibodies: Production, Engineering, and Clinical Application, Ritter and Ladyman. (eds.), pages 60-84 (Cambridge University Press 1995), and Coligan et al. (eds.), Current Protocols in Immunology, pages 9.3.1-9.3.5 and pages 9.4.1-9.4.11 (John Wiley & Sons 1997).

The IL-31 polypeptides of the present invention, including full-length polypeptides, functional fragments, and fusion polypeptides, can be produced, purified and refolded by methods well-known in the art and as described in published U.S. Patent Application No. 2003-0224487, and PCT application WO 03/060090. It is preferred to purify the polypeptides of the present invention to ≧80% purity, more preferably to ≧90% purity, even more preferably ≧95% purity, and particularly preferred is a pharmaceutically pure state, that is greater than 99.9% pure with respect to contaminating macromolecules, particularly other proteins and nucleic acids, and free of infectious and pyrogenic agents. Preferably, a purified polypeptide is substantially free of other polypeptides, particularly other polypeptides of animal origin.

The present invention provides methods for using IL-31 antagonists, including anti-IL-31 antibodies for reducing, inhibiting, or preventing inflammation in cell microenvironments where one or more cells in the microenvironment is/are T cells that are positive for the cutaneous lymphocyte antigen. In addition the present invention provides methods for using M-31 antagonists, including anti-M-31 antibodies for reducing, inhibiting, or preventing itching and pruritis in cell microenvironments where one or more cells in the microenvironment is/are T cells that are positive for the cutaneous lymphocyte antigen.

Antibodies from an immune response generated by inoculation of an animal with IL-31 antigens can be isolated and purified are know in the art and are described herein. Methods for preparing and isolating polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are well known in the art. See, for example, Current Protocols in Immunology, Cooligan, et al. (eds.), National Institutes of Health, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1995; Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989; and Hurrell, J. G. R., Ed., Monoclonal Hybridoma Antibodies: Techniques and Applications, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla., 1982.

As used herein, the term “antibodies” includes polyclonal antibodies, affinity-purified polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, and antigen-binding fragments, such as F(ab′)₂ and Fab proteolytic fragments. Genetically engineered intact antibodies or fragments, such as chimeric antibodies, Fv fragments, single chain antibodies and the like, as well as synthetic antigen-binding peptides and polypeptides, are also included. Non-human antibodies may be humanized by grafting non-human CDRs onto human framework and constant regions, or by incorporating the entire non-human variable domains (optionally “cloaking” them with a human-like surface by replacement of exposed residues, wherein the result is a “veneered” antibody). In some instances, humanized antibodies may retain non-human residues within the human variable region framework domains to enhance proper binding characteristics. Through humanizing antibodies, biological half-life may be increased, and the potential for adverse immune reactions upon administration to humans is reduced. Moreover, human antibodies can be produced in transgenic, non-human animals that have been engineered to contain human immunoglobulin genes as disclosed in WIPO Publication No. WO 98/24893. It is preferred that the endogenous immunoglobulin genes in these animals be inactivated or eliminated, such as by homologous recombination.

Antibodies are considered to be specifically binding if: 1) they exhibit a threshold level of binding activity, and 2) they do not significantly cross-react with related polypeptide molecules. A threshold level of binding is determined if anti-IL-31 antibodies herein bind to a IL-31 polypeptide, peptide or epitope with an affinity at least 10-fold greater than the binding affinity to control (non-IL-31) polypeptide. It is preferred that the antibodies exhibit a binding affinity (K_(a)) of 10⁶ M⁻¹ or greater, preferably 10⁷ M⁻¹ or greater, more preferably 10⁸ M⁻¹ or greater, and most preferably 10⁹M⁻¹ or greater. The binding affinity of an antibody can be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, for example, by Scatchard analysis (Scatchard, G., Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 51: 660-672, 1949).

Antibodies to IL-31 may be used for tagging cells that express IL-31; for isolating IL-31 by affinity purification; for diagnostic assays for determining circulating levels of IL-31 polypeptides; for detecting or quantitating soluble IL-31 as a marker of underlying pathology or disease; in analytical methods employing FACS; for screening expression libraries; for generating anti-idiotypic antibodies; and as neutralizing antibodies or as antagonists to block IL-31 activity in vitro and in vivo. Suitable direct tags or labels include radionuclides, enzymes, substrates, cofactors, inhibitors, fluorescent markers, chemiluminescent markers, magnetic particles and the like; indirect tags or labels may feature use of biotin-avidin or other complement/anti-complement pairs as intermediates. Antibodies herein may also be directly or indirectly conjugated to drugs, toxins, radionuclides and the like, and these conjugates used for in vivo diagnostic or therapeutic applications. Moreover, antibodies to IL-31 or fragments thereof may be used in vitro to detect denatured IL-31 or fragments thereof in assays, for example, Western Blots or other assays known in the art.

Suitable detectable molecules may be directly or indirectly attached to the polypeptide or antibody, and include radionuclides, enzymes, substrates, cofactors, inhibitors, fluorescent markers, chemiluminescent markers, magnetic particles and the like. Suitable cytotoxic molecules may be directly or indirectly attached to the polypeptide or antibody, and include bacterial or plant toxins (for instance, diphtheria, toxin, saporin, Pseudomonas exotoxin, ricin, abrin and the like), as well as therapeutic radionuclides, such as iodine-131, rhenium-188 or yttrium-90 (either directly attached to the polypeptide or antibody, or indirectly attached through means of a chelating moiety, for instance). Polypeptides or antibodies may also be conjugated to cytotoxic drugs, such as adriamycin. For indirect attachment of a detectable or cytotoxic molecule, the detectable or cytotoxic molecule can be conjugated with a member of a complementary/anticomplementary pair, where the other member is bound to the polypeptide or antibody portion. For these purposes, biotin/streptavidin is an exemplary complementary/anticomplementary pair.

Binding polypeptides can also act as IL-31 “antagonists” to block IL-31 binding and signal transduction in vitro and in vivo. These anti-IL-31 binding polypeptides would be useful for inhibiting IL-31 activity or protein-binding.

Both skin-homing T cells and epidermal keratinocytes have been implicated in the pathology of skin diseases in humans. As shown in Example 1 herein, of the T cell subsets, IL-31 mRNA and protein expression is restricted to the skin-homing CLA+ T cell population in humans. As such, an antagonist to IL-31, including an antibody or receptor antagonist will be useful in treating skin and epidermal diseases which are mediated by CLA+ T cells. Such diseases include, for example, atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, psoriasis, drug-induced allergic reactions, skin-tropic viruses and viral associated pruritis, vitiligo, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, alopecia aereata, acne rosacea, acne vulgaris, prurigo nodularis, and bullous pemphigoid.

Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronically relapsing inflammatory skin disease with a dramatically increasing incidence over the last decades. Clinically AD is characterized by highly pruritic often excoriated plaques and papules that show a chronic relapsing course. The diagnosis of AD is mostly based on major and minor clinical findings. See Hanifin J. M., Arch Dermatol: 135, 1551 (1999). Histopathology reveals spongiosis, hyper and focal parakeratosis in acute lesions, whereas marked epidermal hyperplasia with hyper and parakeratosis, acanthosis/hypergranulosis and perivascular infiltration of the dermis with lymphocytes and abundant mast cells are the hallmarks of chronic lesions.

T cells play a central role in the initiation of local immune responses in tissues and evidence suggests that skin-infiltrating T cells in particular, may play a key role in the initiation and maintenance of disregulated immune responses in the skin. Approximately 90% of infiltrating T cells in cutaneous inflammatory sites express the cutaneous lymphocyte-associated Ag (CLA+) which binds E-selectin, an inducible adhesion molecule on endothelium (reviewed in Santamaria-Babi L. F., et al., Eur J Dermatol: 14, 13, (2004)). A significant increase in circulating CLA+ T cells among AD patients compared with control individuals has been documented (See Teraki Y., et al., Br J Dermatol: 143, 373 (2000)), while others have demonstrated that memory CLA+ T cells from AD patients preferentially respond to allergen extract compared to the CLA− population (See Santamaria-Babi, L. F., et al., J Exp Med: 181, 1935, (1995)). In humans, the pathogenesis of atopic disorders of the skin have been associated with increases in CLA+ T cells that express increased levels of Th-2-type cytokines like IL-5 and IL-13 9, 10. See Akdis M., et al., Eur J Immunol: 30, 3533 (2000); and Hamid Q., et al., J Allergy Clin Immunol: 98, 225 (1996).

NC/Nga Mice spontaneously develop AD-like lesions that parallel human AD in many aspects, including clinical course and signs, histophathology and immunopathology when housed in non-specified pathogen-free (non-SPF) conditions at around 6-8 weeks of age. In contrast, NC/Nga mice kept under SPF conditions do not develop skin lesions. However, onset of spontaneous skin lesions and scratching behaviour can be synchronized in NC/Nga mice housed in a SPF facility by weekly intradermal injection of crude dust mite antigen. See Matsuoka H., et al., Allergy: 58, 139 (2003). Therefore, the development of AD in NC/Nga is a useful model for the evaluation of novel therapeutics for the treatment of AD.

In addition to the NC/Nga model of spontaneous AD, epicutaneous sensitization of mice using OVA can also be used as a model to induce antigen-dependent epidermal and dermal thickening with a mononuclear infiltrate in skin of sensitized mice. This usually coincides with elevated serum levels of total and specific IgE, however no skin barrier dysfunction or pruritus normally occurs in this model. See Spergel J. M., et al., J Clin Invest, 101: 1614, (1998). This protocol can be modified in order to induce skin barrier disregulation and pruritis by sensitizing DO11.10 OVA TCR transgenic mice with OVA. Increasing the number of antigen-specific T cells that could recognize the sensitizing antigen may increase the level of inflammation in the skin to induce visible scratching behaviour and lichenification/scaling of the skin.

Both the NC/Nga spontaneous AD model and the OVA epicutaneous DO11.10 model are used to investigate expression of IL-31 and IL-31RA in AD. See Example 3.

An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing atopic dermatitis reactions.

Contact Dermatitis

Allergic contact dermatitis is defined as a T cell mediated immune reaction to an antigen that comes into contact with the skin. The CLA+ T cell population is considered to be involved in the initiation of dermatitis since allergen dependent T cell responses are largely confined to the CLA+ population of cells (See Santamaria-Babi, L. F., et al., J Exp Med: 181, 1935, (1995)). Recent data has found that only memory (CD45RO+) CD4+ CLA+ and not CD8+ T cells proliferate and produce both type-1 (IFN-γ) and type-2 (IL-5) cytokines in response to nickel, a common contact hypersensitivity allergen. Furthermore, cells expressing CLA in combination with CD4, CD45RO (memory) or CD69 are increased after nickel-specific stimulation and express the chemokine receptors CXCR3, CCR4, CCR10 but not CCR6. See Moed H., et al., Br J Dermatol: 51, 32, (2004).

In animal models, it has been demonstrated that allergic contact dermatitis is T-cell dependent and that the allergic-responsive T cells migrate to the site of allergen application. See generally: Engeman T. M., et al., J Immunol: 164, 5207, (2000); Ferguson T. A. & Kupper T. S. J Immunol: 150, 1172, (1993); and Gorbachev A. V. & Fairchild R. L. Crit. Rev Immunol: 21, 451 (2001). Since CLA+ T cells produce IL-31 and IL-31 stimulation of skin keratinocytes can induce pro-inflammatory chemokines, IL-31 may be involved in the pathophysiology of contact dermatitis. See Example 2 for an in vivo model of contact dermatitis.

An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing contact dermatitis reactions.

Drug-Induced Delayed Type Cutaneous Allergic Reactions

Drug-induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions are very heterogeneous and may mirror many distinct pathophysiological events. See Brockow K., et al., Allergy: 57, 45 (2002). Immunological mechanisms involved in these reactions have been shown as either antibody or cell mediated. In immediate drug allergy an IgE-mediated antibody reaction can be demonstrated by a positive skin prick and/or intradermal test after 20 min, whereas non-immediate reactions to drugs can occur more than one hour after last drug intake and are often T-cell mediated. Non-immediate T-cell mediated delayed type reactions can occur in patients with adverse drug reactions to penicillins for example. Proliferative T cell responses to penicillins have been shown to be restricted to the memory (CD45RO+) CLA+ subpopulation of T cells from penicillin allergic patients whereas the CD45RO+ CLA− subset shows no proliferative response. See Blanca M., Leyva L., et al., Blood Cells Mol Dis: 31, 75 (2003). Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions can be artificially reproduced in mice, allowing assessment of factors that may be involved in the initiation and perpetuation of the DTH response. An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing delayed type hypersensitivity reactions. See Example 4 for an in vivo model of DTH.

Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) is a very rare but extremely severe drug reaction characterized by widespread apoptosis of epidermis with extensive blisters. Studies have shown that lymphocytes infiltrating the blister are CLA+ T cells and can exhibit cytotoxicity towards epidermal keratinocytes. See Leyva L., et al., J Allergy Clin Immunol: 105, 157 (2000); and Nassif A., Bensussan A., et al., J Allergy Clin Immunol: 114, 1209 2004). A transgenic mouse system, whereby OVA is expressed under the control of the keratin-5 (K5) promoter in the epidermal and hair follicular keratinocytes of mice, has been generated to establish an animal model for TEN. OVA specific CD8+ T cells, when adoptively transferred into K5-OVA mice, undergo activation and proliferation in the skin-draining lymph nodes and target the skin of K5-OVA mice, resulting in development of skin lesions that are reminiscent of TEN. See Azukizawa H., et al., Eur J Immunol: 33, 1879 (2003). An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing TEN reactions.

Bullous Pemphigoid

Bullous pemphigoid is a subepidermal disorder which manifests as subepidermal blisters with a dermal infiltrate of neutrophils and eosinophils. Diagnosis is characterized by the presence of antigen-specific antibodies against specific adhesion proteins of the epidermis and dermal-epidermal junction. See Jordon R. E., et al., JAMA: 200, 751 (1967). Studies analyzing the role of T cells in the pathogenesis of bullous pemphigoid by analysis of PBL and skin blister T cells have found a predominance of CLA+ T cells expressing increased levels of Th2-cytokines like IL-4 and IL-13. See Teraki Y., et al., J Invest Dermatol: 117, 1097 (2001). In bullous pemphigoid patients following therapy with systemic corticosteroids, the frequency of CLA+, but not CLA−, interleukin-13-producing cells is significantly decreased. Decreases in CLA+ cells following corticosteroid treatment is associated with clinical improvement. See Teraki, ibid. Neutralization of IL-31 may improve clinical outcome of bullous pemphigoid. An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing bullous pemphigoid.

Alopecia Aereata

Alopecia aereata (AA) is regarded as a tissue-restricted autoimmune disease of hair follicles in which follicular activity is arrested because of the continued activity of lymphocytic infiltrates. AA results in patches of complete hair loss anywhere on the body, though actual loss of hair follicles does not occur, even in hairless lesions. Although clinical signs of inflammation are absent, skin biopsies from sites of active disease show perifollicular lymphocytic inflammation of primarily CD4+ cells, along with a CD8+ intrafollicular infiltrate. See Kalish R. S. & Gilhar A. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc: 8, 164 (2003).

Studies have shown that scalp skin infiltrating CD4+ or CD8+ lymphocytes express CLA and, in peripheral blood of individuals with AA, the percent of CLA+ CD4+ or CD8+ lymphocytes is significantly higher than that of normal controls. Furthermore, patients with severe or progressive AA show a much higher CLA-positivity compared to patients recovering from the disease and a decrease in percent CLA+ cells parallels a good clinical course. See Yano S., et al., Acta Derm Venereal: 82, 82 (2002). These studies therefore suggest that CLA+ lymphocytes may play an important role in AA. Xenograft models have demonstrated that activated T cells are likely to play a role in the pathogenesis of AA. Lesional scalp from AA patients grafted onto nude mice regrows hair coincident with a loss of infiltrating lymphocytes from the graft and, transfer of activated lesional T cells to SCID mice can transfer hair loss to human scalp explants on SCID mice. See Kalish R. S. & Gilhar A. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc: 8, 164 (2003).

A variety of immunomodulating therapies are part of the usual treatment for this disorder however none of these treatments have been consistent in their efficacy. See Tang L., et al., J Invest Dermatol: 120, 400 (2003); Tang L., et al., (2004); and Tang L., et al., J Am Acad Dermatol: 49, 1013 (2003). Neutralizing anti-IL-31 antibody may be effective to limit, reduce, inhibit, or prevent the effects of the development of AA.

Acne Vulgaris/Acne Rosacea

Acne vulgaris, a disorder of the pilosebaceous apparatus, is the most common skin problem of adolescence. Abnormalities in follicular keratinization are thought to produce the acne lesion. Acne rosacea is differentiated from acne vulgaris by the presence of red papules, pustules, cysts and extensive telangiectasias, but the absence of comedones (white heads). Increased sebum excretion from sebaceous glands is a major factor in the pathophysiology of acne vulgaris. Other sebaceous gland functions are also associated with the development of acne, including sebaceous proinflammatory lipids; different cytokines produced locally; periglandular peptides and neuropeptides, such as corticotrophin-releasing hormone, which is produced by sebocytes; and substance P, which is expressed in the nerve endings at the vicinity of healthy-looking glands of acne patients. See Zouboulis C. C. Clin Dermatol: 22, 360 (2004).

Although the pathophysiology of acne vulgaris and acne rosacea remains unknown, clinical observations and histopathologic studies suggest that inflammation of the pilosebaceous follicle may be central to the pathogenesis of rosacea and acne vulgaris. Early studies on analysis of T cell subsets infiltrating rosacea legions indicated that the majority of T cells expressed CD4. See Rufli T. & Buchner S. A. Dermatologica: 169, 1 (1984).

CD4+ T cells produce IL-31 and WIC analysis of skin for IL-31 expression suggests that IL-31 is expressed in sebaceous and sweat glands. IL-31 stimulation of epidermal keratinocytes induces expression of chemokines which likely results in cellular infiltration suggesting that IL-31 may contribute to the pro-inflammatory response in skin. IL-31 may therefore contribute to the pathophysiology of acne rosacea and acne vulgaris. Neutralization of IL-31 may improve clinical outcome of acne vulgaris and acne rosacea. An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing acne vulgaris and acne rosacea.

Prurigo Nodularis

Prurigo nodularis is an eruption of lichenified or excoriated nodules caused by intractable pruritus that is difficult to treat. While chronic rubbing results in lichenification, and scratching in linear excoriations, individuals who pick and gouge at their itchy, irritated skin tend to produce markedly thickened papules known as prurigo nodules. Although prurigo nodularis is not specific to atopic dermatitis, many patients with these nodules also have an atopic reaction, which manifests as allergic rhinitis, asthma, or food allergy. T cells represent the majority of infiltrating cells in prurigo lesions and these lesions often represents the most pruritic skin lesion in atopy patients.

Topical treatment of prurigo nodularis with capsaicin, an anti-pruritic alkaloid that interferes with the perception of pruritis and pain by depletion of neuropeptides like substance P in small sensory cutaneous nerves, has proven to be an effective and safe regimen resulting in clearing of the skin lesions. See Stander S., et al., J Am Acad Dermatol: 44, 471 (2001). Studies of the itch response in NC/Nga mice using capsaicin treatment showed that the spontaneous development of dermatitis lesions was almost completely prevented. Furthermore, the elevation of serum IgE levels was significantly suppressed and infiltrating eosinophils and mast cell numbers in lesional skin of capsaicin treated mice were reduced. See Mihara K., et al., Br J Dermatol: 151, 335 (2004). The observations from this group suggest that scratching behaviour might contribute to the development of dermatitis by enhancing various immunological responses, therefore implying that prevention of the itch sensation and/or itch-associated scratching behaviour might be an effective treatment for AD. See Mihara K., et al., Br J Dermatol: 151, 335 (2004).

Chronic delivery of IL-31 induces pruritis and alopecia in mice followed by the development of skin lesions resembling dermatitis suggesting that IL-31 induces itching. See Dillon S. R., et al., Nat Immunol: 5, 752 (2004). Neutralization of IL-31 in IL-31 treated mice to prevent pruritis and alopecia was tested in Example 10. Neutralization of IL-31 may improve clinical outcome of prurigo nodularis. An IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing prurigo nodularis.

Skin-Tropic Viruses and Viral Associated Pruritis

Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)-specific CD8+ T cells in the peripheral blood and HSV-specific CD8+ T cells recovered from herpes lesions express high levels of CLA whereas non-skin-tropic herpes virus-specific CD8+ T cells lack CLA expression. See Koelle D. M., et al., J Clin Invest: 110, 537 (2002). HSV-2 reactive CD4+ T lymphocytes also express CLA, but at levels lower than those previously observed for CD8+ T lymphocytes. See Gonzalez I C., et al., J Infect Dis: 191, 243 (2005). Pruritis has also been associated with herpes viral infections (See Hung K. Y., et al., Blood Purif: 16, 147 (1998), though other viral diseases, like HIV, have also been associated with pruritic skin lesions. Severe, intractable pruritus, often associated with erythematopapular skin lesions and hypereosinophilia, is a condition observed in some nonatopic, HIV-infected patients 36. See Singh F. & Rudikoff D, Am J Clin Dermatol; 4, 177 (2003); and Milazzo F., Piconi S., et al., Allergy: 54, 266 (1999).

The association of skin-tropic viruses with pruritis and CLA+ T cells suggests that IL-31 producing T cells may be involved in the pathophysiology of viral infections. Thus, an IL-31 neutralizing antagonist could be effective in inhibiting, reducing, minimizing or preventing viral associated pruritis, and neutralization of IL-31 may improve clinical outcome of viral associated pruritis.

IL-31 has been shown to induce several chemokine and cytokine genes in normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs), including genes encoding GROα, (CXCL1), TARC (CCl17), MIP3β, (CCL19), MDC (CCL22), MIP-3 (CCL23), MIP-1 β (CCL4), and I-309. See Dillon S. R., et al., Nat Immunol: 5, 752 (2004). TARC and MDC bind CCR4, a chemokine receptor associated with Th2-type T cells and predominantly expressed by CLA+ T cells in peripheral blood. Both chemokines have been implicated in the recruitment of T cells into the skin of AD patients suggesting that these chemokines contribute to the inflammatory process associated with the pathogenesis of AD. See Example 9 for a model to measure the reduction in TARC and MDC levels in CLA+ T cell mediated disease by administering an IL-31 antagonist.

Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition that affects more than seven million Americans. Psoriasis occurs when new skin cells grow abnormally, resulting in inflamed, swollen, and scaly patches of skin where the old skin has not shed quickly enough. Plaque psoriasis, the most common form, is characterized by inflamed patches of skin (“lesions”) topped with silvery white scales. Psoriasis may be limited to a few plaques or involve moderate to extensive areas of skin, appearing most commonly on the scalp, knees, elbows and trunk. Although it is highly visible, psoriasis is not a contagious disease. The pathogenesis of the diseases involves chronic inflammation of the affected tissues. IL-31RA polypeptides, soluble heterodimeric and multimeric receptor polypeptides, or anti-IL-31 antibodies or binding partners of the present invention, and the like, could serve as a valuable therapeutic to reduce inflammation and pathological effects in psoriasis, other inflammatory skin diseases, skin and mucosal allergies, and related diseases.

Psoriasis is a T-cell mediated inflammatory disorder of the skin that can cause considerable discomfort. It is a disease for which there is no cure and affects people of all ages. Psoriasis affects approximately two percent of the populations of European and North America. Although individuals with mild psoriasis can often control their disease with topical agents, more than one million patients worldwide require ultraviolet or systemic immunosuppressive therapy. Unfortunately, the inconvenience and risks of ultraviolet radiation and the toxicities of many therapies limit their long-term use. Moreover, patients usually have recurrence of psoriasis, and in some cases rebound, shortly after stopping immunosuppressive therapy.

Using methods known in the art, and disclosed herein, one of skill could readily detect IL-31 in diseases that have a high correlation of CLA+ T cells. Such methods involve taking a biological sample from a patient, such as blood, saliva, or biopsy, and comparing it to a normal control sample. Histological, cytological, flow cytometric, biochemical and other methods can be used to determine the relative levels or localization of IL-31, or cells expressing IL-31, i.e., monocytes, in the patient sample compared to the normal control. A change in the level (increase or decrease) of IL-31 expression, or a change in number or localization of monocytes (e.g., increase or infiltration of monocytic cells in tissues where they are not normally present) compared to a control would be indicative of disease. Such diagnostic methods can also include measuring TARC and MDC, for example. Such methods are well known in the art and disclosed herein.

IL-31 polypeptides that bind IL-31RA receptor polypeptides, and antibodies thereto are useful to antagonize or block signaling via IL-31RA-comprising receptors in the treatment of atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, drug induced delayed type cutaneous allergic reactions, toxic epidermal necrolysis, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, bullous pemphigoid, alopecia aereata, vitiligo, acne rosacea, prurigo nodularis, and Herpes simplex virus.

IL-31 may also be used within diagnostic systems for the detection of circulating levels of ligand, and in the detection of diseases that are mediated by CLA+ T cells. IL-31 may also be used within diagnostic systems for the detection of circulating levels of ligand, and in the detection of diseases that have a high correlation of CLA+ T cells. Within a related embodiment, antibodies or other agents that specifically bind to IL-31 can be used to detect circulating IL-31 polypeptides; conversely, IL-31 itself can be used to detect circulating or locally-acting receptor polypeptides. Elevated or depressed levels of Ligand or receptor polypeptides may be indicative of pathological conditions, including inflammation and pruritis.

Generally, the dosage of administered IL-31 antibody will vary depending upon such factors as the patient's age, weight, height, sex, general medical condition and previous medical history. One skilled in the art can readily determine such dosages, and adjustments thereto, using methods known in the art.

Administration of an anti-IL-31 antibody to a subject can be topical, intradermal, as an inhalant, intravenous, intraarterial, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intrapleural, intrathecal, by perfusion through a regional catheter, or by direct intralesional injection. When administering therapeutic proteins by injection, the administration may be by continuous infusion or by single or multiple boluses.

Additional routes of administration include oral, mucosal-membrane, pulmonary, and transcutaneous. Oral delivery is suitable for polyester microspheres, zein microspheres, proteinoid microspheres, polycyanoacrylate microspheres, and lipid-based systems (see, for example, DiBase and Morrel, “Oral Delivery of Microencapsulated Proteins,” in Protein Delivery: Physical Systems, Sanders and Hendren (eds.), pages 255-288 (Plenum Press 1997)). The feasibility of an intranasal delivery is exemplified by such a mode of insulin administration (see, for example, Hinchcliffe and Illum, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 35:199 (1999)). Dry or liquid particles comprising IL-31 can be prepared and inhaled with the aid of thy-powder dispersers, liquid aerosol generators, or nebulizers (e.g., Pettit and Gombotz, TIBTECH 16:343 (1998); Patton et al., Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 35:235 (1999)). This approach is illustrated by the AERX diabetes management system, which is a hand-held electronic inhaler that delivers aerosolized insulin into the lungs. Studies have shown that proteins as large as 48,000 kDa have been delivered across skin at therapeutic concentrations with the aid of low-frequency ultrasound, which illustrates the feasibility of transcutaneous administration (Mitragotri et al., Science 269:850 (1995)). Transdermal delivery using electroporation provides another means to administer a molecule having IL-31 binding activity (Potts et al., Pharm. Biotechnol. 10:213 (1997)).

A pharmaceutical composition comprising a protein, polypeptide, or peptide having IL-31 binding activity can be formulated according to known methods to prepare pharmaceutically useful compositions, whereby the therapeutic proteins are combined in a mixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. A composition is said to be a “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” if its administration can be tolerated by a recipient patient. Sterile phosphate-buffered saline is one example of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Other suitable carriers are well-known to those in the art. See, for example, Gennaro (ed.), Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 19th Edition (Mack Publishing Company 1995).

For purposes of therapy, molecules having IL-31 binding activity and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are administered to a patient in a therapeutically effective amount. A combination of a protein, polypeptide, or peptide having IL-31 binding activity and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is said to be administered in a “therapeutically effective amount” if the amount administered is physiologically significant. An agent is physiologically significant if its presence results in a detectable change in the physiology of a recipient patient. For example, an agent used to treat inflammation is physiologically significant if its presence alleviates at least a portion of the inflammatory response. Similarly, an agent used to treat itching and pruritis associated with a disease mediated CLA+ T cells, or a disease with a high correlation of CLA+ T cells, is physiologically significant if its presence alleviates at least a portion of the pruritic or itch response.

A pharmaceutical composition comprising an IL-31 antibody can be furnished in liquid form, in an aerosol, or in solid form. Liquid forms, are illustrated by injectable solutions, aerosols, droplets, topological solutions and oral suspensions. Exemplary solid forms include capsules, tablets, and controlled-release forms. The latter form is illustrated by miniosmotic pumps and implants (Bremer et al., Pharm. Biotechnol. 10:239 (1997); Ranade, “Implants in Drug Delivery,” in Drug Delivery Systems, Ranade and Hollinger (eds.), pages 95-123 (CRC Press 1995); Bremer et al., “Protein Delivery with Infusion Pumps,” in Protein Delivery: Physical Systems, Sanders and Hendren (eds.), pages 239-254 (Plenum Press 1997); Yewey et al., “Delivery of Proteins from a Controlled Release Injectable Implant,” in Protein Delivery: Physical Systems, Sanders and Hendren (eds.), pages 93-117 (Plenum Press 1997)). Other solid forms include creams, pastes, other topological applications, and the like.

Polypeptides having IL-31 binding activity can be encapsulated within liposomes using standard techniques of protein microencapsulation (see, for example, Anderson et al., Infect. Immun. 31:1099 (1981), Anderson et al., Cancer Res. 50:1853 (1990), and Cohen et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1063:95 (1991), Alving et al. “Preparation and Use of Liposomes in Immunological Studies,” in Liposome Technology, 2nd Edition, Vol. III, Gregoriadis (ed.), page 317 (CRC Press 1993), Wassef et al., Meth. Enzymol. 149:124 (1987)). As noted above, therapeutically useful liposomes may contain a variety of components. For example, liposomes may comprise lipid derivatives of polyethylene glycol) (Allen et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1150:9 (1993)).

Other dosage forms can be devised by those skilled in the art, as shown, for example, by Ansel and Popovich, Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, 5^(th) Edition (Lea & Febiger 1990), Gennaro (ed.), Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 19^(th) Edition (Mack Publishing Company 1995), and by Ranade and Hollinger, Drug Delivery Systems (CRC Press 1996).

The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Determination of Human Primary T Cell Types that Express IL-31 Upon Stimulation

A. Selection of Study Subjects and Biopsies

Twelve patients with AD (moderate to severe disease; median age was 32 years old with skin involvement of 5-45%), 6 patients with psoriasis (median age was 56 years old with skin involvement of 10-65%) and 12 healthy individuals (median age 34 years) were included in A study after informed consent. None of the patients had received any systemic corticosteroids previously. All patients were off topical corticosteroids for one week before their skin biopsy or blood drawing. Two mm punch biopsies were taken from 1) acute erythematous AD lesions of less than three days' onset, 2) chronic, lichenified AD lesions of greater than two weeks' duration, 3) chronic psoriasis lesions, and 4) normal skin. The skin samples were immediately frozen at −70° C. for immunohistochemistry or Western and immuno-dot blotting.

B. Isolation and Activation of Primary Human T Cell Subsets:

To isolate various T cell subsets, human PBMCs from the donors were isolated using standard Ficoll gradient centrifugation. Total T cells were then isolated using the T Cell Isolation Kit 11 (Miltenyi Biotec) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Separation efficiency was assessed using standard flow cytometry and determined to be >95% T cells. To separate CD45RA+ “naïve” T cells from the CD45RO+ “memory” T cells, the total T cell population was incubated with anti-CD45RO microbeads (Miltenyi Biotec) for 15 minutes at +4° C. and magnetically separated according to the manufacturers instructions. The naïve and memory T cell populations were determined to be >90% pure by flow cytometry.

CD45RO+ memory T cells are often tissue specific and cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA) is used to differentiate skin-homing T cells from gut-homing T cells expressing α4/β7 on their surface. To determine which of these cell types produce IL-31, CLA+ T cells were isolated from total T cells, activated and conditioned media was collected for the IL-31 bioassay. To do this, total T cells were isolated and then incubated on ice for 20 minutes in 1 mL of a 1:50 dilution of anti-CLA-FITC antibody (PharMingen). Cells were then washed, resuspended in MACS buffer and incubated with anti-FITC microbeads (Miltenyi Biotec) for 15 minutes at +4° C. The cells were then washed, resuspended and magnetically separated over an LS column according to the manufacturers instructions. The labeled T cells were later determined to be >80% pure while the CLA-depleted T cells were >98% CLA−. Both CLA+ and CLA− T cells were collected and cultured concurrently.

To activate the CD45RA+ and CD45RO+ T cell subsets, cells were cultured overnight in 24-well tissue culture plates pretreated with 2.0 μg/mL anti-CD3 antibody (Southern Biotechnology). The cells were plated at a concentration of 2.5×10⁶ cells/mL in tissue culture media (RPMI, 5% fetal bovine serum, L-Glutamine and Sodium Pyruvate (all Gibco)) supplemented with 2.0 μg/mL anti-CD28 (Southern Biotechnology) and placed in a +37° C. incubator. After four hours, half of the wells were harvested, cells pelleted and conditioned media frozen at −20° C. until time of IL-31 bioassay.

The CLA+ and CLA− T cell subsets were activated similarly in 48-well tissue culture plates that were pretreated with 2.0 μg/mL anti-CD3 antibody (Southern Biotechnology). The cells were activated for 16 hours or 24 hours in a +37° C. incubator at a concentration of 6.25×10⁵ cells/mL. Samples were harvested, cells pelleted and conditioned media frozen at −20° C. until time of IL-31 bioassay. For suboptimal activation, CLA+ T cells were cultured in plates pre-treated with 0.5 ug/ml of anti-CD3 antibody.

C. Human IL-31 Bioassay Protocol:

BAF3 cells transfected with hIL-31RA, hOSMRB, and KZ134 (a signal transducer and activator of transcription-activated luciferase reporter) were grown to 5×10⁵ and 1×10⁶ cells/mL. Cells were washed with assay media (RPMI 1640, 10% FBS, L-Glutamine, Sodium Pyruvate, and Pen/Strep (all Gibco)) and resuspended at 3×10⁵ cell/mL in assay medium. In a 96-well opaque plate, hIL-31 standards were titered in duplicate from 600 pg/mL to 9.38 pg/mL in assay medium via a 100 μL/well, 1:2 serial dilution. Quality control standards were added in duplicate to the plate at 350 pg/mL and 35 pg/mL in 100 μL. Test samples were often diluted 1:2 or 1:4 and added in duplicate to the sample wells. 100 μL of the washed BAF3 cells were then added to each well for a final concentration of 3×10⁴ cells/well. The plate was then incubated for 16-24 hours at +37° C. in a 5% CO₂ incubator. The plate was then centrifuged at 1200 RPM for 5 minutes, media flicked off and 25 μL/well of lysis buffer (Promega) added to each well. After 10 minutes the plate was read on a luminometer (Berthold). The luminometer added 40 μL/well of luciferase substrate mix (Promega) and integrated the luminescence for a period of 4 seconds. Luminescence values were exported to a spreadsheet where they were analyzed and converted into picograms of IL-31 per 10⁶ cells per mL of volume. The data is summarized in Table 1.

D. Results of IL-31 Bioassay:

The results from the CD45RA+ and the CD45RO+ T cell samples revealed that IL-31 was primarily produced by activated CD45RO+ memory T cells. The CD45RA+ and CD45RO+ T cells from both donors produced no detectable IL-31 when unstimulated. However, the CD45RO+ samples from both donors #3 and #4 generated significant levels of IL-31 following a 24 hour activation with plate-bound anti-CD3 and soluble anti-CD28 (110.4 pg/10⁶ cells/mL and 145.6 pg/10⁶ cells/mL respectively). Conversely, when the CD45RA+ T cells from donors #3 and #4 were activated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28, they produced very low amounts of IL-31 (13.1 pg/10⁶ cells/mL and 12.7 pg/10⁶ cells/mL respectively).

The CLA+ and CLA− T cell samples revealed that IL-31 seems to be made almost entirely by activated CLA+ T cells. The CLA− population of T cells (which includes naïve T cells, α4/β7 gut-homing memory T cells, and tissue uncommitted T cells) from both donors generated no detectable levels of IL-31 regardless of time point or activation condition. The CLA+ T cells on the other hand, generated very high levels of IL-31 when stimulated with 2.0 μg/mL plate-bound anti-CD3 antibody. Donor #5 generated 1385.7 pg/10⁶ cells/mL IL-31 by 16 hours and >1920 pg/10⁶ cells/mL by 24 hours. Donor #6 generated 121.3 pg/10⁶ cells/mL IL-31 at 16 hours and 328.9 pg/10⁶ cells/mL IL-31 at 24 hours. These results clearly demonstrate that of the T cell subsets, IL-31 seems to be made specifically by cutaneous (CLA+) T cells under standard activation conditions.

TABLE 1 IL-31 IL-31 (pg/10⁶ (pg/10⁶ Donor # Cell Type Activation cells/mL) cells/mL)  6 hr 24 hr 3 CD45RA+ αCD3 + αCD28 Below 13.1 Detection 3 CD45RO+ αCD3 + αCD28 8.6 110.4 4 CD45RA+ αCD3 + αCD28 6.7 12.7 4 CD45RO+ αCD3 + αCD28 11.9 145.6 16 hr 24 hr 5 CLA+ T Unstimulated Below Below Cells Detection Detection 5 CLA+ T αCD3 1385.7 >1920 Cells 5 CLA− T Unstimulated Below Below Cells Detection Detection 5 CLA− T αCD3 Below Below Cells Detection Detection 6 CLA+ T Unstimulated Below Below Cells Detection Detection 6 CLA+ T αCD3 121.3 328.9 Cells 6 CLA− T Unstimulated Below Below Cells Detection Detection 6 CLA− T αCD3 Below Below Cells Detection Detection

Example 2 IL-31 Involvement in Initiation and Perpetuation of Contact Hyper-Sensitivity

A. Method I

BALB/c mice are painted on shaved mid-back with 25 ul of 0.5% DNFB dissolved (2,4, dinitro-fluoro-benzene, Sigma, St. Louis Mo.) in acetone:olive oil (4:1) solution using a pipettor. A vehicle control group receives 25 ul of acetone:olive oil only. After 5 days, mice are anaesthetized with isofluorane in an inhalation chamber and both ear pinnae of experimental and control animals are measured with an engineer's micrometer (Mitutoyo) to obtain a baseline measurement. Mice are then challenged by applying 10 ul of 0.25% DNFB in acetone:olive oil (4:1) to both sides of each ear of all mice. Contact hyper-sensitivity is measured at 24 h and 48 h later as the difference between the right ear (challenged) and the left ear (unchallenged). All measurements are done with an engineer's micrometer. Background values are determined by the difference in ear swelling between the challenged and unchallenged ears of naive mice.

Whole blood and serum for FACS and/or ELISA analysis are collected prior to sacrifice and ears are collected for histology.

Method II (Induces Th2 Responses)

BALB/c mice are painted on shaved mid-back with 100 ul of 0.5% FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) in a 1:1 solution of acetone/dibutyl phthalate (MSDS available using pipettor on days 1, 2 and 8. On day 13, mice are anaesthetized with isofluorane in an inhalation chamber and both ear pinnae of experimental and control animals are measured with an engineer's micrometer (Mitutoyo) to obtain a baseline measurement. Mice are challenged by applying 25 ul of 0.5% FITC (in 1:1 acetone/dibutyl phthalate) to the dorsal surface of each ear. Contact hyper-sensitivity is measured at 24 h and 48 h later as the difference between the right ear (challenged) and the left ear (unchallenged). All measurements are done with an engineer's micrometer. Background values are determined by the difference in ear swelling between the challenged and unchallenged ears of naive mice. Whole blood and serum for FACS and/or ELISA analysis are collected prior to sacrifice and ears are collected for histology.

Method III (Induces Th1 Responses)

BALB/c mice are painted on shaved mid-back with 25 ul of 2% oxazolone (in 4:1 acetone/olive oil) using pipettor. On day 7, mice are anaesthetized with isofluorane in an inhalation chamber and both ear pinnae of experimental and control animals are measured with an engineer's micrometer (Mitutoyo) to obtain a baseline measurement. Mice are challenged by applying 5 ul of oxazolone to the dorsal surface of each ear. Contact hyper-sensitivity is measured at 24 h and 48 h later as the difference between the right ear (challenged) and the left ear (unchallenged). All measurements are done with an engineer's micrometer. Background values are determined by the difference in ear swelling between the challenged and unchallenged ears of naive mice. Whole blood and serum for FACS and/or ELISA analysis are collected prior to sacrifice and ears are collected for histology.

Involvement of IL-31 in the initiation and perpetuation of contact hyper-sensitivity is tested using a neutralizing antibody against IL-31 both at the sensitization and challenge phases of the experiment.

Example 3 IL-31 Involvement in Atopic Dermatitis

A. Methods I (Sensitization of NC/Nga Mice)

Male NC/Nga mice were purchased from Charles River Laboratories, Japan. The mice were 4 weeks old on arrival and housed in SPF quarantine conditions for 4 weeks to acclimate. The mice were approximately 10-11 weeks old at the start of the antigen sensitization. Mice were anaesthetized with isofluorane and backs were shaved with electric clippers. Approximately 10 ug of Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Dp) (Indoor Biotechnologies, Charlottesville, Va., special order) extract was injected intradermally at the nape of the neck 3 times per week for 5 to 6 weeks until mice developed skin lesions. Control animals received 10 ul PBS intradermal injections 3 times per week. The Dp extract was prepared according to method by Matsuoka and colleagues. Matsuoka H., et al., Allergy: 58, 139 (2003). Briefly, 595 mg Dp lyophilized spent culture extract was dissolved in 12 mL sterile PBS (Gibco). Dp was mixed in a 50 mL Falcon tube on a shaking rocker for 30 minutes. The extract was spun for 10 minutes at 2000 rpm and the supernatant was collected and aliquoted into 1 mL cryovial tubes and stored at −20° C.

B. Method II (Sensitization of DO11.10 Mice)

DO11.10 transgenic mice were bred from an in-house colony and were between 9.5 and 14 weeks old at start of antigen sensitization. 24 hours prior to epicutaneous sensitization mice were anaesthetized with isofluorane and the entire trunk (back and abdomen) of mice were shaved with electric clippers. The mice were then tape stripped with Elastin surgical tape (Johnson and Johnson) on the back. 1 cm2 sterile gauze patches were wetted with either 500 ug ovalbumin (Calbiochem 32467) or sterile PBS (Gibco) and adhered to left backside of mice with DuoDerm Extra Thin Dressing (ConvaTec 187932). The patch and dressing were then covered in a body wrap of the Elastin surgical tape so mice could not remove or destroy the patches. Patches were worn for 7 days and removed. The mice were rested for two weeks before having another round of epicutaneous sensitization. Mice received a total of three one-week sensitizations.

Results:

Immunohistochemical analysis of IL-31RA expression in lesional and non-lesional skin from dust mite sensitized NC/Nga and OVA sensitized DO11.10 animals showed that IL-31RA is expressed by epidermal keratinocytes in mice, however no significant difference in levels of expression was found between antigen sensitized versus PBS sensitized animals in this study.

Example 4 IL-31 Involvement Delayed Type Hypersensitivity

A. Methods

To generate a DTH response, mice were sensitized to antigen on day 0 by subcutaneous immunization at the base of the tail with 100 ug ovalbumin (OVA) in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA, 50-100 ul total volume). One week later mice were anesthetized with isofluorane in an inhalation chamber and both ear pinnae of experimental and control animals were measured with an engineer's micrometer (Mitutoyo) to obtain a baseline measurement. Mice were challenged intradermally with 10 ug OVA in PBS in a total volume of 10 ul into the left ear pinnae, just below the skin without hitting any veins. As a control, mice also received an injection of 10 ul PBS in the right ear pinnae. In some cases, a separate control group given an i.d. injection of OVA in the ear may also be treated with topical corticosteroids as a positive control to inhibit the reaction. At 24 and 48 hr after challenge, mice were anesthetized and ear thickness was measured. Results were expressed as: Specific ear swelling=(24 hr measurement−0 hr measurement) for experimental ear−(24 hr measurement−0 hr measurement) for negative control ear. Induration, the hallmark of DTH, is detectable by 18 hours after injection of sensitized antigen and is maximal by 24-48 hours. The lag in the onset of palpable induration is the reason for naming the response “delayed type.”

B. Results

IL-31 transgenic mice were tested for DTH, however, due to an increase in ear thickness in un-challenged IL-31 transgenic animals, no statistically significant difference in DTH could be determined between IL-31 Tg animals compared to wildtype controls in this study. IL-31 receptor knockout animals were also tested in a DTH response and no significant difference in the DTH response could be observed between receptor knockout and wildtype animals.

Example 5 Immunohistochemical (IHC) Staining of IL-31 in Skin Lesions from Uninvolved Psoriatic, and Atopic Dermatitis

Uninvolved psoriatic, atopic dermatitis and normal skin were tested for the IL-31 ligand by IHC. Positive control cells consisted of BHK cells transfected with IL-31. Negative controls performed included: (1) un-transfected BHK cells, (2) staining representative tissues and cells with protein A purified Normal Rabbit serum and detecting antibody binding as usual. Antibody reagent was E5758 (Rabbit anti-huIL-31 CEE, Aff. Purified at 1.0 mg/ml). Control cells included C02-6020: BHK cells expressing zcytor17 Lig hu-CEE/21, and a BHK wild type. Tissues tested included acute atopic dermatitis skin samples, chronic atopic dermatitis skin samples, unaffected area skin samples, and normal control skin samples and other in-house control samples.

The cells and tissues described above were fixed overnight in 10% NBF and embedded in paraffin using standard techniques.

5 μM sections were baked at 61° C. for 30 min for tissue adhesion. Slides were subsequently dewaxed in 3×5′ in xylene and rehydrated through graded alcohols as follows: 2×2′ in 100% EtOH, 2×2′ in X95% EtOH, 1×2′ in 70% EtOH. Slides were rinsed in dH20, and then heat induced epitope retrieval (HIER) was performed for 20 minutes under steam followed by 20 minutes cooling to RT in 10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH 9.0

Slides were loaded onto a DakoCytomation Autostainer. Slides were rinsed with TBS/Tween buffer (TBST), prepared as recommend by manufacturer. Endogenous biotin was blocked with a 10 minute incubation in avidin solution, washed in TBST followed by a 1.0 minute incubation in biotin solution. Slides were washed in TBST. A protein block (PBSB) (0.5% Blocking Powder in PBS, Perkin Elmer NEL700001KT.) was applied for 30 minutes and rinsed off slides. The primary antibody was diluted to 500 ng/ml and was applied for 60 minutes in ChemMate Antibody Dilution Buffer (part #ADB250, Ventana Medical systems).

Tissues washed twice in TBST, and then incubated 45 minutes in biotinylated Goat anti-Rabbit Ab, 750 ng/ml in PBSB (catalog #BA-1000, Vector Labs). Slides washed twice in TBST. Vectastain Elite ABC Reagent (catalog #PK-7100, Vector Labs) was incubated for 45 minutes. Slides washed twice in TBST. Signals were developed with DAB+ (catalog #K-3468, DakoCytomation) for 10 minutes at room temperature. Tissue slides were then counterstained in hematoxylin (catalog #H-3401 Vector Labs), dehydrated and coverslipped in VectorMount (catalog #H-5000, Vector Labs).

Results:

1) Cell Controls:

BHK cells transfected with IL-31 was positively stained with IL-31 antibody E5758 while un-transfected cells was negative for this antibody. The same transfected and un-transfected cells were negative with anti-rabbit sera.

2) Atopic Dermatitis Skin Analysis:

The staining pattern for IL31 in the AD skin samples is identical to that of psoriasis skins reported previously: keratinocyte and CD3 positive T-cells stained negative for IL31. A weak but rather uniform staining of the epithelial cells in the secretory portion of the sweat glands was present, but a strong signal was observed in the inner layer of epithelium in the duct portion. Sebaceous gland was positive for IL31. There was no difference in the IL31 staining between AD and normal skin.

Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining of uninvolved psoriatic, atopic dermatitis and normal skin showed strong staining of IL-31 in the holocrine secretion of the sebaceous glands. Considering the phenotype of IL 31 transgenic mice, it is interesting to note that the sebaceous glands originate as an epithelial bud from the outer root sheath of hair follicles. In addition to sebaceous glands weak but rather uniform staining of IL-31 was observed in the epithelial cells in the secretory portion of the sweat glands and a strong signal in the inner layer of epithelium was observed in the duct portion of sweat glands.

Example 6 Immunohistochemical (IHC) Staining of IL-31RA in Uninvolved Psoriatic, and Atopic Dermatitis

Uninvolved psoriatic, atopic dermatitis and normal skin were tested for the IL-31RA by IHC. Positive control cells consisted of BHK cells dual transfected with IL-31RA and OSMR. Negative controls performed included: (1) un-transfected BHK cells, (2) staining representative tissues and cells with protein A purified Normal Rabbit serum and detecting antibody binding as usual. Antibody reagent was E6292 (Rabbit anti-huIL-31RAs-CEE v.4 at 1.33 mg/ml). Control cells included C02-5117 BHK cells expressing human IL-31RA and human OSMR (Total cells in the pellet: 3.9×106, vitality was >90%) and C04-1587: BHK wild type (Total cells in the pellet: 5×106). Other tissues examined included: 5 Acute atopic dermatitis skin samples, 10 Chronic atopic dermatitis skin samples, 10 Unaffected area skin samples, Normal control skin samples, and other in-house skin samples.

The cells and tissues described above were fixed overnight in 10% NBF and embedded in paraffin using standard techniques.

5 μM sections were baked at 61° C. for 30 min for tissue adhesion. Slides were subsequently dewaxed in 3×5′ in xylene and rehydrated through graded alcohols as follows: 2×2′ in 100% EtOH, 2×2′ in X95% EtOH, 1×2′ in 70% EtOH. Slides were rinsed in dH20, and then heat induced epitope retrieval (HIER) was performed for 20 minutes under steam followed by 20 minutes cooling to RT in 10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH 9.0

Slides were loaded onto a DakoCytomation Autostainer. Slides were rinsed with TBS/Tween buffer (TBST), prepared as recommend by manufacturer. Endogenous biotin was blocked with a 10-minute incubation in avidin solution, washed in TBST followed by a 10-minute incubation in biotin solution. Slides were washed in TBST. A protein block (PBSB) (0.5% Blocking Powder in PBS, Perkin Elmer NEL700001KT.) was applied for 30 minutes and rinsed off slides. Primary antibodies diluted from 665 ng/ml to 1330 ng/ml for IL31RA were applied for 60 minutes in ChemMate Antibody Dilution Buffer (part #ADB250, Ventana Medical systems).

Tissues were washed twice in TBST, and then incubated 45 minutes in biotinylated Goat anti-Rabbit Ab, 750 ng/ml in PBSB (catalog #BA-1000, Vector Labs). Slides were washed twice in TBST. Vectastain Elite ABC Reagent (catalog #PK-7100, Vector Labs) was incubated for 45 minutes. Slides were washed twice in TBST. Signals were developed with DAB+ (catalog #K-3468, DakoCytomation) for 10 minutes at room temperature. Tissue slides were then counterstained in hematoxylin (catalog #H-3401 Vector Labs), dehydrated and coverslipped in VectorMount (catalog #H-5000, Vector Labs).

Results are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Results of IHC for IL-31RA in skin biopsy specimens from patients with involved and uninvolved AD compared to healthy volunteers IL-31RA IHC CASE ID SCORE* CD3 IHC SCORE* AD-1 2-3 0-1 AD-2 2-3 2 AD-3 2-3 1-2 AD-4 3 1 AD-5 2 2 UAD-1 1-2 1 UAD-2 1 0-1 UAD-5 1-2 0-1 UAD-6 2-3 ND UAD-7 2 1 UAD-8 1 1 UAD-9 1-2 1 UAD-10 2 ND Normal-1 1 0-1 Normal-2 0-1 0-1 Normal-3 1 0-1 Abbreviations: AD: atopic dermatitis; UAD: uninvolved AD; ND: Not Done *IHC signal was scored from 0 (no signal) to 4 (intense signal)

There was a slight up regulation of IL31RA in the epidermis of AD skin samples. Possibly a small percentage of CD3 positive T-cells were positive for IL31RA in the AD skins. There were CLA positive cells in all skin samples tested. AD skins may have more CLA positive cells than that of the normal or UAD samples.

The receptor for IL-31, IL-31RA was also expressed in the epithelial cells of eccrine sweat glands with the cuboidal epithelial cells in the secretory portion of the eccrine glands demonstrating slightly higher level of IL-31RA protein compared to the duct portion.

Collectively, these data demonstrate that IL-31RA is expressed by epidermal keratinocytes from both control volunteers and AD patients. However, the levels of IL-31RA expressed on keratinocytes from AD skin biopsies were higher than the levels observed in skin biopsies from normal controls, indicating a potential for increased responsiveness to IL-31 in the context of AD.

IL-31 RA was also found expressed on a subset of perivascular infiltrating cells present in skin biopsies from AD patients but was not present in control skin biopsies. These IL-31RA+ cells were recognized by an antibody specific for the tissue macrophage marker CD68, indicating these cells were skin-infiltrating tissue macrophages.

Example 7 Isolation of Skin Infiltrating Cells by Microscopy Analysis of IL-31mRNA by RT-PCR

The presence of skin infiltrating T cells is a distinguishing feature in skin biopsies from AD patients compared to normal individuals. Since IL-31 is a T cell associated cytokine, the expression of IL-31 in skin-infiltrating T cells in tissue biopsies from AD patients was examined. First, the presence of increased numbers of CD3+ T cells in skin tissue biopsies from AD patients compared to normal individuals was confirmed by IHC. See Table 2. Next, laser capture microscopy was used to specifically isolate skin infiltrating cells for analysis of IL-31 mRNA by RT-PCR. IL-31 mRNA was expressed by skin infiltrating cells from acute AD patients. In normal tissues, infiltrating cells are not normally found and therefore could not be tested. However, the epidermal keratinocyte layer, which is present in both AD and normal skin, was analyzed for IL-31 mRNA expression and lower levels of IL-31 mRNA were found in normal samples compared to the epidermal keratinocyte layer of AD samples. Semi-quantitative analysis of IL-31 mRNA expression compared to an internal control gene (HPRT) showed that although IL-31 mRNA levels were not significantly different between AD and normal samples, there was a trend towards higher IL-31 expression in skin from AD patients.

Example 8 IL-31 is Produced by Memory T Cells with a Skin-Homing Phenotype

Analysis of skin biopsies confirmed that the infiltrating CD3+ T cells in the skin, which express IL-31 mRNA, express the skin-homing marker cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA). Of the total T cell population in normal human peripheral blood, IL-31 expression was found to be largely restricted to CD45RO+ memory/effector cells as opposed to the CD45RA+ naïve T cell population.

In order to determine if IL-31 production was associated with CLA+ skin-homing T cells, CLA+ and CLA− T cells were isolated from peripheral blood of patients diagnosed with AD and control volunteers and compared IL-31 mRNA and protein levels following anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 stimulation. Our results indicate that IL-31 mRNA was significantly elevated in CLA+ T cells from both AD and normal individuals at both 4 h (p0.0087 and p0.0022 CLA+ compared to CLA− for AD and normal, respectively) and 24 h (p0.0022 CLA+ compared to CLA− for both AD and normal samples) post stimulation. Analysis of IL-31 protein levels in culture supernatants confirmed that IL-31 was produced predominantly by CLA+ T cells as there was no detectable IL-31 in culture supernatants from CLA− T cells from both AD and control individuals. There were no significant differences in IL-31 levels between AD and normal patients. We also analysed the production of IL-31 by peripheral blood T cells that express other tissue-specific homing markers, such as the gut-specific homing marker α4β7, from normal volunteers. Comparison of the IL-31 levels produced by CLA+ T cells and α4β7+ cells demonstrated CLA+ T cells preferentially produce IL-31 compared to the α4β7+ cells (average of 34.5 pg/ml and 14.42 pg/ml IL-31, respectively).

Although both AD patients and normal controls have circulating CLA+ T cells that express IL-31 upon activation, CLA+ T cells from AD patients are reported to exist in a more activated state compared to cells from normal individuals. Consequently, the threshold of stimulation required for the production of IL-31 by CLA+ T cells may differ between dermatitis patients and control subjects. To test this hypothesis, we stimulated CLA+ T cells from AD patients and control individuals with sub-optimal concentrations of anti-CD3 in the absence of anti-CD28 and analyzed the production of IL-31 in culture supernatants at 24 h after stimulation. Our results demonstrate that circulating CLA+ T cells from some AD patients produce higher levels of IL-31 compared to cells from normal individuals in this study with maximum levels reaching 1200 pg/mL, whereas maximal detected levels in normal CLA+ supernatants was only 400 pg/ml and maximal detected levels for psoriasis patients was 73 pg/ml at suboptimal concentrations of anti-CD3 stimulation. Five of eleven AD patients showed IL-31 levels below the limit of detection of our assay suggesting there might be a subset of AD patients where IL-31 is produced at low levels. This may reflect variations in the stage of disease of our study population. Nevertheless, more than half of the AD patients showed a trend towards higher IL-31 levels compared to psoriasis patients and normal individuals following suboptimal stimulation with anti-CD3. Since more CLA+ T cells are localized in skin of AD patients as compared to normal individuals, our studies suggest that there is an increased potential for IL-31 activity in the AD skin micro-environment. Thus, this study may suggest a subpopulation of AD patients, which have more activated CLA+ T cells producing IL-31.

Example 9 Reduction of TARC and MDC in Response to Anti-IL-31 Antibody in AD Mouse Models

Method I

Six-week old male NC/Nga mice (CRL Japan) were sensitized intradermally with 50 μg dust mite extract (D. pteronyssinus, Indoor Biotechnologies) three times a week on the back and scored for AD-like lesions. After 5 weeks of sensitization the mice were euthanized and the right ears were excised and placed into a single well of a 48-well culture dish (Corning) supplemented with RPMI+2% FBS (GIBCO Invitrogen). Plates were placed in 5% CO2 humidity controlled incubators. Supernatants were collected after 24 hours and frozen at −20° C. until further analysis.

Method II

Twelve-week old female NC/Nga mice (CRL Japan) were sensitized intradermally with 10 μg SEB (Toxin Technology) in the ear and on the back three times per week. The mice were scored for AD-like lesions. After 5 weeks of sensitization the mice were euthanized and 6 mm biopsy punches were taken from the injected ear of each mouse and placed into a single well of a 48-well culture dish supplemented with RPMI+2% FBS. Plates were placed in 5% CO2 humidity controlled incubators. Supernatants were collected after 24 hours and frozen at −20° C. until further analysis.

Groups of mice in both studies were treated with either a rat anti-mouse IL-31 monoclonal antibody at 10 mg/kg or vehicle, intraperitoneally two times each week starting after 1 to 2 weeks of sensitization.

TARC and MDC concentrations in the 24-hour supernatant samples were measured by conventional ELISA (R&D Systems).

TARC and MDC concentrations were lower in ear supernatants from anti-IL-31 treated mice compared to control mice in both studies, however, these results were not statistically significant when analyzed by ANOVA, probably due to small sample size. When the data from both experiments is combined and analyzed there is a statistically significant difference between treated groups.

Example 10 Administration of IL-31 Neutralizing Antibody

Normal female BALB/c mice (CRL) approximately 8 to 12 weeks old were implanted subcutaneously with 14-day osmotic pumps (Alzet, #2002) delivering 1 ug/day mIL-31. Groups of mice received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of rat anti-mouse IL-31 monoclonal antibody 10 mg/kg (200 ug/mouse) twice weekly starting 1 week prior to IL-31 delivery. Control groups of mice received i.p. injections of vehicle (PBS/0.1% BSA) with the identical dosing schedules. Mice were scored daily for alopecia and pruritis using the following criteria: 0=no scratching, animal appears normal, 1=thinning of coat in small areas, scratching noted, 2=minor hair loss (small patches), scratching, 3=moderate hair loss, scratching, and 4=severe hair loss, excessive scratching.

In all experiments, mice treated with rat anti-mIL-31 mAb had a delay in onset of symptoms of approximately 5 to 7 days and a lower overall score for alopecia and pruritis. All groups of mAb treated mice (regardless of dose frequency or concentration) developed alopecia and pruritis similar to control mice by 13 day of the study. These data suggest that neutralization of IL-31 can delay the onset of the scratch/hairloss response induced by IL-31.

From the foregoing, it will be appreciated that although specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not limited except as by the appended claims. 

1. A method of treating a skin disorder characterized by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cells in a mammal comprising administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody or antibody fragment thereof which specifically binds to a polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 27-164 of SEQ ID NO:2, wherein the skin disorder is Alopecia aereata, and wherein after administration the skin disorder is improved.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the neutralizing monoclonal antibody or antibody fragment is (a) a murine monoclonal antibody, (b) a humanized antibody derived from (a), (c) a chimeric antibody fragment, (d) a human monoclonal antibody; or (e) a single chain antibody.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the antibody fragment is selected from the group consisting of: a) a Fab fragment; b) a Fab′ fragment; c) a Fv fragments; d) a F(ab′)2 fragment; and e) a single chain antibody fragment.
 4. A method of treating a skin disorder characterized by cutaneous lymphocyte antigen positive T cells in a mammal comprising administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a neutralizing monoclonal antibody or antibody fragment thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the neutralizing monoclonal antibody or antibody fragment specifically binds to a polypeptide consisting of amino acid residues 27-164 of SEQ ID NO:2, wherein the skin disorder is Alopecia aereata, and wherein after administration the skin disorder is improved.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the neutralizing monoclonal antibody or antibody fragment is (a) a murine monoclonal antibody, (b) a humanized antibody derived from (a), (c) a chimeric antibody fragment, (d) a human monoclonal antibody; or (e) a single chain antibody.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the antibody fragment is selected from the group consisting of: a) a Fab fragment; b) a Fab′ fragment; c) a Fri fragments; d) a F(ab′)2 fragment; and e) a single chain antibody fragment. 